Points of View
A testing time for tsetse eradication?

One hundred years of experience and more than enough tools in the toolbox but the way forward for tsetse control continues to be much discussed subject. There is no doubt that tsetse and trypanosomosis has a major impact on the livelihoods of rural Africans both in terms of loss in cattle productivity (estimated at $4.75 bn/yr) and in human health; over 100 people a day die as a result of sleeping sickness. African Heads of State, through the establishment of PATTEC, the Pan-African Trypanosomosis and Tsetse Eradication Campaign, have indicated that tsetse control is a priority and it will be given support at a political level. As independent countries they have every right to take measures regardless of future land use or economic feasibility but for expert advice they will need to turn to the scientific community. To hear their views, New Agriculturist attended a recent discussion workshop, hosted by the DFID Animal Health Programme, called "Tsetse control - the next 100 years."

Is tsetse control a high priority for Africa?

"The unique thing with tsetse and trypanosomosis is that basically it not only affects the lives of ordinary, rural people, it affects aspects relating to cattle, to land. And for that same reason, it is a problem that cuts across the wide spectrum of human life. It's important that it should be dealt with and be given the prominence that it deserves."
Charles Mogotsi, Minister Counsellor, Embassy of Botswana, Ethiopia

"What we're dealing with here is a deteriorating situation. If we don't do something, what are the costs going to be of not intervening?"
Martin Mitchell, Cooper Zimbabwe Ltd

"One of the strongest arguments against eradication is that there are many other more pressing needs and priorities in rural development in Africa. And pursuance of an eradication strategy will divert and tie up resources and reduce those available for other purposes."
David Bourn, Environmental Research Group Oxford (ERGO), UK

"We have to deal with the problems that we can solve. And it is no good trying to say, yes but there are other problems. The answer to that is, yes but I don't know how to solve those. And I'm not going to leave this problem simply because there's another one that I want to worry about. Let's get on with the job because you can do it and you will make already a major improvement."
Chris Schofield, European Community & Latin America Network on Biology and Control of Triatomines (ECLAT)

Is total eradication of tsetse flies necessary, possible, environmentally desirable or economically viable?

"History shows us most tsetse control programmes have failed because of reinvasion. I don't think tsetse will be eradicated in the foreseeable future because of the extent, variety and resilience of tsetse populations, institutional weaknesses and logistic constraints, persistence of tsetse in remote regions and protected areas. Future disease management strategies should encompass a broad range of control options including animal husbandry (avoidance, or reduction of disease transmission), use of veterinary drugs, tsetse control measures and exploitation of natural immunity and trypanotolerance - a very underrated ability that ought to be more widely recognised and promoted."
David Bourn, ERGO, UK

"It is the same lesson that the African Heads of State have learned that has led them to decide to go for elimination of the problem. Because the past effort was to just control and control forever. And they said, "Let's make an effort to give a lasting solution to the problem." So if there is any lesson to be learnt from the past, it's to correct it and to go for elimination of the problem."
Assefa Mebrate, Pan African Sterile Insect Technique Forum, African Union

"I don't think Sterile Insect Technique(SIT) is a suitable proposition for Africa because of the enormous infrastructure of the facility that you would need to produce sterile insects, for which Africa is not geared up. And I don't think it's biologically feasible because it's not true that tsetse exists in isolated pockets in Africa, and there will always be the potential for re-invasion and re-colonisation of evacuated areas."
Sarah Randolph, Oxford University, UK

"Even in a very long run scenario, we cannot justify appropriating such a huge chunk of scarce resources for tsetse clearance on a continental scale. There are many more cost-effective options. Farmers themselves are controlling the disease year in, year out and we can get very respectable cost-benefit ratios if we are targeting areas where the demand for tsetse control already exists."
Alex Shaw, AP Consultants, UK

"One of the challenges in assessing the economic value where benefits flow over a long period, is that benefits arising after twenty or so years are downplayed, even ignored."
Len Budd, economist, UK

"Some have referred to the Pan-African Trypanosomosis and Tsetse Eradication Campaign (PATTEC) initiative as a multibillion dollar project doomed to fail. Some have called it a pipe dream. We believe that this plan is within the means of African countries to execute because it is based on the principle of biting what we can chew and chewing what we can swallow - one bite at a time."
John Kabayo, PATTEC

"Tryps control will never be sustainable unless you stop the problem of reinvasion. And the only way you can stop the problem of reinvasion is to eliminate foci from which reinvasion can come."
Chris Schofield, ECLAT

"All of the ecological arguments which have been put forward so far have gone along the grounds of how much more money could be made if we free up this land for the use of cattle and for the growth of crops. It's not in the least clear in many areas that this is actually the best thing to do for anybody."
John Hargrove, Zimbabwe

How should tsetse be controlled?

"The more complex the technology, the more difficult it is to sustain. It has to be simple and the farmers have to decide that they want it. In the last ten years we have been involved in testing and selecting various devices which are environmentally friendly, simple and cost-effective. We have conducted two major pilot projects in southern Ethiopia and in both areas the pilot trial demonstrated that you can reduce the fly population by about 90% in 6-7 months."
Getachew Tikubet, International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), Ethiopia

"We have been promoting IPM for a long time. In the case of tsetse there are many approaches. You can use traps, targets, maybe nets. If zero grazing, you protect your cows with a tsetse net, rather than a mosquito net. You can use drugs, trypanocides against the parasites. You can use trypanotolerant animals. So there are different tactics people can use depending where they are. And I think if you just apply them in a sensible way you already get to where you want to go."
Hans Herren, ICIPE, Kenya

"Odour baited targets when used over a large scale and used properly - there's no technical barrier to their being used to achieve eradication against the selected species. Where they are used in small areas subject to reinvasion, they will never be sufficient for eradication. In general, reinvasion is always going to stand in the way of eradication, particularly when the areas are small. And it's independent of the method used. The problem is the same with SIT."
John Hargrove, Zimbabwe

"We are not suggesting Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) is the silver bullet approach. It is just one tool of many tools and we are often advising people that in their situation SIT is not feasible. Anything else would be nonsense. In the same way, to exclude SIT, would be very bad technical advice because the SIT happens to be the only technology that has an efficiency pattern where the efficiency increases with reducing target population density. This can be, under certain conditions, a very powerful tool."
Udo Feldmann, International Atomic Energy Agency, Austria

"I believe there is already a huge amount of control going on in Africa, not by governments but by farmers who are removing wildlife and removing habitat and using drugs to treat their livestock. And what we need to be thinking about is how we can enhance that and extend that indigenous autonomous control that's happening. And if we don't recognize that that's a major factor controlling the disease we are in danger of developing techniques that are really superfluous to requirements."
David Bourn, ERGO, UK

"Use of trypanotolerant livestock is one option in the integrated approach to the problem. They are also very resistant to other important diseases so that even when there is no tsetse they will still be useful and competitive."
Kwaku Agyemang, International Trypanotolerance Centre, The Gambia

"Because reinvasion is such a big drawback, should we not try and do more about regional and cross border cooperation?"
William Shereni, Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Control Board, Department of Veterinary Services, Zimbabwe

Control is not the only task

"If you only look at the vertical operation, which is killing the tsetse, then the achievement will be minimal to say the least, and it will also not be sustainable. So the best thing to do after doing tsetse control, is to follow up with some important income generation for the farmer."
Getachew Tuckubet, ICIPE, Ethiopia

"Land tenure is a vitally important aspect of post control developments, which determines how resources are used and whether or not people are willing to invest in sustainable agricultural practices. Land tenure is in a state of transition in many countries. Implementation of land use plans will remain problematic until resource ownership issues are resolved."
David Bourn, ERGO, UK

"The impression I have is that the Kenya government's commitment towards tsetse control and final eradication is going to grow even stronger, especially after the adoption of the action plan in 2001 by the Heads of State. And we have already started seeing that happening where the amount of resource allocation towards the problem has increased dramatically. The only thing that we want to do in the future is to try and now not just consider tsetse and trypanosomosis but to also integrate other livestock diseases so that we can go into the communities with a full package of animal health."
Joseph Ndung'u, Kenya Trypanosomosis Research Institute

"Getting rid of tsetse is not necessarily going to improve animal health. Tryps is just one component of this problem which could be addressed by better vet care, getting farmers to use drugs better, by community animal health workers. These are arguably more important in the whole scheme of things."
Mark Eisler, University of Glasgow, UK

What needs to be done?

"I think it is time that the decision making on what is happening is transferred to people who are actually suffering from the problem."
Hans Herren, ICIPE, Kenya

"It's not up to donors to decide. This is the first and strong message. If it is not reflected in Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers and Country Strategy Papers then it is not a priority of the country and donors won't finance it - it is as simple as that."
Philippe Vialatte, European Union, Brussels

"Let's see government priorities within Africa. They have to raise it up their priority lists as well. Let's not get bogged down in eradication versus control. It's all about the same problem. It's all about addressing the same issues. Finally, let's move forward in these priority areas and start to get on with it."
Peter Holmes, Programme Against African Trypanosomosis(PAAT), and University of Glasgow, UK

"This debate should conclude that we should get on with it - that the means to remove this problem from Africa are there. The experts are there. We should mobilize ourselves, organize ourselves and get on with it."
John Kabayo, PATTEC

"If we do not seize the opportunity to make use of what we know and have learnt, then we will condemn millions of people to diseases, poverty and unavoidable suffering. This is not ethical. And if we accept this, then we are shirking our scientific and social responsibility and we should feel ashamed."
Chris Schofield, ECLAT

"I think tsetse control is a massive problem. We do need to see a much bigger involvement by African governments but I still wait to see real commitment on the ground. I think that has to happen. I think what is terribly important for Africa is they do actually start taking responsibility for their own problems."
John Hargrove, Zimbabwe