Book reviews
Contents
Nature's matrixSeventy years - two generations - have seen the agricultural landscape transformed from a mosaic of small farms, growing a range of crops and livestock, to large-scale monocultures with a further separation of arable and livestock production. But to no benefit: "An analysis of 15 underdeveloped countries found that yield per acre declined as size increased, and another study found the same thing in the developed world (in the US)," state the authors of Nature's Matrix.
Simultaneously, chemical fertilisers have replaced the fertility regeneration previously brought by legumes, and manure and crop residues generated on-farm; while pesticides have displaced disease control through rotations of crops grown in smaller areas, and the natural activity of the predators that thrived in a heterogeneous environment.
The resulting loss of biodiversity, often unnoticed, has long-term consequences. The near elimination of labour by machinery, and the loss of the great proportion of independent farming families complete a transformation whose benefits are questioned by Perfecto and co-authors.
In a bid to suggest how food output and biodiversity may both be secured, the authors of Nature's Matrix take issue equally with agronomists and conservationists: the former for their preoccupation with productivity as the ultimate goal of agriculture, and with conservationists for their well-intentioned but ultimately futile attempt to conserve natural habitat by ring-fencing small refuges surrounded, inevitably, by monocultural farmland.
"There is now little doubt that isolating fragments of natural vegetation in a landscape of low quality matrix, like a pesticide drenched banana plantation, is a recipe for disaster from the view of preserving biodiversity," the authors write.
Questioning the so-called 'efficiency' of industrial agriculture, the authors point out that while such farming systems may return the most profit per hectare they do not necessarily produce the most yield per hectare. Instead, they acknowledge the need to optimise, rather than maximise, food production but believe that a return to smallscale agriculture with its individual attention to a diversity of crops and cover crops will provide the yield needed but without the dependence on, and collateral damage of, chemical fertilisers and pest control products. The resulting diverse habitat, even though man-made, has been found to be readily acceptable to birds, mammals and insects, all of which deserve to survive and can offer so much benefit.
In their analysis of how industrial agriculture developed and why it retains such an embrace, not to say stranglehold, on food production worldwide, the authors have no doubts: "The last 30 years has seen a process of consolidation and vertical and horizontal integration that has resulted in just a handful of corporations supplying farm inputs and buying farm outputs," they write. "It is partially because of this structure that the farmers receive only about 10 per cent of what the consumers pay for the food they buy in the supermarkets."
Comparing case studies of agricultural systems in the tropics, where there is the greatest natural biodiversity, they demonstrate how differing degrees of intensification growing coffee, cacao, rice and bananas result in biodiversity loss as intensification increases: the specialisation in monoculture and the removal of other vegetation (shade trees, woodlots, hedges) all reduce the variety and numbers of other organisms in the environment.
By providing analysis of how agriculture, conservation and biodiversity should be managed for the nutritional and social benefit of the majority, as well as the environmental security of the planet, Nature's Matrix offers policymakers, agronomists and ecologists much to ponder.
The state of food and agriculture 2009: Livestock in the balanceLivestock support the livelihoods and food security of a billion people. But in many countries, the absence of strong governance and regulation, coupled with rapidly rising demand for meat and other livestock products, is increasing the risks of disease and the pressure on land, water and biodiversity. Tackling the links between livestock, food security and poverty reduction, climate change, and diseases, The state of food and agriculture 2009, FAO's annual flagship publication, argues that while the livestock sector must continue to meet rising world demand, "it must do so in an environmentally sustainable way, while managing the incidence and consequences of animal diseases and providing opportunities for rural development, poverty reduction and food security."
Growing international trade, inadequate access to veterinary services, and concentration of livestock near urban populations has increased the risk of animal disease outbreaks and the emergence of new animal-related threats to human-health, such as H1N1 and SARS. "Meanwhile," the report adds, "climate change is altering patterns of livestock disease incidence, as pathogens and the insects and other vectors that carry them enter new ecological zones". Improving early warning systems for disease outbreaks by involving animal health workers, and strengthening national and international animal health and food safety systems are among the recommendations made.
To meet the challenges and constraints highlighted, this comprehensive publication calls for appropriate institutions, research, development interventions and governance that reflect the diversity within the sector and the multiple demands placed on it. "The issue of governance is central," says Jacques Diouf, FAO director general in the foreword. "Identifying and defining the appropriate role of government, in its broadest sense, is the cornerstone on which future development of the livestock sector must build."
Science and innovation for developmentUsing the Millennium Development Goals as a framework, Science and innovation for development demonstrates the value of science in combating hunger, improving health, achieving environmental sustainability and adapting to climate change. "Science is only one of many factors which can contribute to development, but we want that factor to be well understood," the authors write.
From the development of NERICA rice, using tissue culture technology, to treadle pumps, mobile phones, and biotechnology, the book clearly presents numerous innovations that are helping to increase agricultural production and combat hunger. Other examples include integrated pest management, zero-tillage, drought-tolerant crops, and the role of vaccines in eradicating rinderpest. "Today there is a need for a new Green Revolution - but one that is in many respects very different," the authors state. "Production has to increase but in a way that is sustainable, environmentally friendly and equitable, ensuring that more food becomes available to the poor."
With many case studies and examples of real life success stories, this accessible publication clearly illustrates the importance of science and innovation in resolving many of the challenges that developing countries face.
Agribusiness and innovation systems in AfricaGhana, a major producer of cassava and cocoa, has set itself an ambitious goal: it aims to be a middle-income country by 2015. Achieving such a goal will depend to a large extent on its ability to foster innovation in agricultural production, processing and marketing. In the last three years, as documented in this book, some useful innovations have been made: new machinery for cassava grinding and pressing have been introduced; cocoa farmers have been trained in how to reduce pest and disease damage; some companies are making better use of radio and television advertisements in their marketing; and farmers organisations have a greater role in crop processing.
However, various factors are also hindering innovation, notably poor availability of finance and a free-market system that allows cheap imports to undercut local producers. Government policy has supported innovation in some instances but is poorly coordinated as a whole, raising doubts over whether Ghana can achieve its bold ambition.
With further country reports from Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, this concise and accessible publication from the World Bank offers valuable recommendations for how innovation can be supported in sub-Saharan Africa, a subject that is likely to be of interest to a wide audience.
Land grab: The race for the world's farmlandThe idea of wealthy governments and private sector investors acquiring large areas of farmland in developing countries has raised ethical concerns about the impact these deals will have on smallscale farmers, their land and livelihoods, and the environment. But supporters argue that increased foreign investment could be the spark for a new Green Revolution. With the aim of boosting awareness of the issues and promoting discussion, the Woodrow Wilson Center hosted a conference in 2009 on foreign land acquisitions. Land grab succinctly presents the event's seven papers and makes recommendations for investors, host governments and the international community for how to approach the deals.
In addition to highlighting case studies from Africa, Asia, Central and Eastern Europe, and the former Soviet Union, the book examines the patterns and motivations of the investments and considers the implications for investors, host countries and food security. Unequal power relations that leave smallholders at risk of exploitation and loss of land, without consultation or compensation are risks highlighted by Alexandra Spieldoch from the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy. While Chido Makunike, a Senegal-based agricultural commodities exporter, warns that successful agribusiness projects will be unlikely if investors fail to understand what land means in Africa.
With perspectives from members of the international community, farmers, and investors, Land grab brings together an interesting mix of opinions that will be of interest to farmers, investors, and development practitioners alike.
Modern and mobile: The future of livestock production in Africa's drylandsContrary to unfounded perceptions that pastoralism is economically inefficient and environmentally destructive, livestock keeping plays a critical role in the economic prosperity of Africa's drylands. Across West and East Africa, pastoralism supports 50 million families. In Chad, pastoral animals make up over one third of exports and feed 40 per cent of the population. "Where other land use systems are failing in the face of global climate change, mobile livestock keeping is generating huge national and regional economic benefits," the authors maintain.
Modern and mobile argues that mobility is essential if livestock are to prosper in Africa's drylands. But the ability to move freely is becoming increasingly constrained: farms and national parks often block access to grazing areas and national border controls can hinder trade patterns. As pastoralists become squeezed into smaller areas, pressure on natural resources reduces productivity, increases environmental degradation, and often leads to conflict. But securing mobility can reduce poverty and conflict, and enable pastoralists to quickly and successfully adapt to a changing climate.
Complemented by numerous case studies and photographs, this well-written book clearly explains not only the obstacles to mobility, but also the opportunities for it and ways forward. As politicians begin to recognise the value of pastoralism and the importance of mobility, several African governments are beginning to develop more informed policies, including initiatives to facilitate cross-border livestock mobility, address land tenure issues, re-open livestock corridors and establish water points. "Livestock mobility is a modern approach to poverty alleviation and accelerated development", the book concludes. "Supporting mobility does not require huge financial investment: it requires refreshed thinking and clearer understanding."
Dryland opportunities: A new paradigm for people, ecosystems and developmentCovering 41 per cent of the earth's surface, drylands provide vital services that support agricultural and pastoral livelihoods. But in most countries dryland ecosystems have been neglected by investment and development interventions. In an attempt to tackle the misconception that drylands are "economic wastelands", Dryland opportunities emphasises the ways in which these ecosystems are economically and environmentally valuable and suggests practical options for development. "A new paradigm is required that meets the needs of dryland people," the authors explain. "It must address the full complexity and dynamics of dryland ecosystems, recognise their potential for development, take account of changing world conditions, and restore the initiative to dryland peoples themselves."
In order to enable dryland communities to sustain their ecosystems, diversify their livelihoods and strengthen their capacity to adapt to climate change the authors recommend: recognising local knowledge and strengthening research into climate change, adaptation and sustainable land management; re-evaluating and sustaining dryland ecosystem services, including soil, wetlands, natural pastures, and non-timber forest products; promoting public and private investment; improving access to profitable markets; and prioritising rights to land and managing risk through insurance and diversification.
Video in development: Filming for rural changeThe use of video in development projects can take many forms, from professionally produced documentaries intended for TV broadcast to short, personal reflections recorded on mobile phone cameras. But whatever the technology or degree of professionalism used in making or sharing a video, if it is to be an effective tool in development, those who make it must be clear about their aims. If the video is part of a wider communication strategy, for example, the quality of the end product is likely to be the most important goal. If video-making is part of a participatory rural appraisal exercise, the process of how it is made may be the key objective.
This guide to video in development is not a handbook or manual on how to go about filming. Rather, aiming at development planners, it examines the different ways that video can be used, such as for training, awareness-raising, data collection or advocacy, drawing on examples from development projects in South America, Africa and Asia. Community participation in the film-making process is a popular, recent development and the authors are keen to support the inclusion of communities from an early stage of a video-making project. Having a clear understanding of the desired outcomes for the community is necessary, however, in order to guide the participation process.
Reaching the unreached: Community based village knowledge centres & village resource centresSince 1992, the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) has been using both traditional and modern technologies to provide locally-specific information and knowledge to rural communities in India. Through community-owned Village Knowledge Centres (VKCs) and Village Resource Centres (VRCs), the MSSRF provides specially-designed websites, in the local language, that present the information requested by the community.Village volunteers are then trained to use and maintain the computers, as well as gather and input information. By providing a detailed account of how the knowledge centres work and the impact they have had, Reaching the unreached tells the stories of the people who work with and benefit from these centres.
Along the Coromandel Coast, VRCs in fishing villages began by providing forecasts of wave heights and current directions in the Bay of Bengal 36 hours in advance, according to one case study. Since then, a mobile application has been developed that provides real-time weather and safety information, locations of fishing areas, and market prices. This 'Fisher Friend' can also connect to the network up to 10km from the shore. In Puducherry, VRCs are also helping increase the incomes of small farmers by providing locally specific information on a vast range of topics including animal health and veterinary services, organic farming, crop insurance schemes, mushroom cultivation, soil testing, fodder management, artificial insemination and quality milk production.
Aimed at encouraging local government authorities across India to set up centres in rural communities, Reaching the unreached provides thorough analysis of how information and knowledge can empower the poor and create income generation and livelihood opportunities.
March 2010
